The benefits of artificial gravity for space settlements

AI generated image of a rotating space station in Earth orbit providing 1g of artificial gravity in the outer ring, with partial gravity in the inner ring and microgravity at the central hub. Credits: Microsoft Designer

SSP has been covering research on artificial gravity (AG) and its impact on space settlement for years. Many of these posts have focused on the Gravity Prescription for human physiology with particular interest in reproduction as humanity will want to ensure that our space settlements are biologically self sustaining (meaning we will want to have children and raise them there). Should we discover that gravity levels on the Moon or Mars are not conducive to couples raising healthy offspring, rotating space settlements with AG may be our only long term option. But there are many other benefits that spin gravity cities can provide for settlers. In a position paper published online last May in Acta Astronautica, gravity researcher Jack J.W.A. van Loon leads a team of European scientists in an exploration of the possibilities and advantages of rotating space stations providing AG. Van Loon founded and manages the Dutch Experiment Support Center (DESC), which provides user support for gravity related research. This study posits a toroidal orbital station large enough and rotating at a sufficient rate to provide 1g of AG in an outer ring, with an intermediate location for partial gravity laboratories and a nonrotating microgravity research facility in a central module.

From an engineering and human factors perspective, pre-flight training would be simplified because practice operations and procedure planning can be performed on the ground in Earth’s normal gravity. Microgravity environments present challenges for physical phenomena like fluid flow, condensation, and heat convection. Provision of a gravity vector eliminates many of these problems simplifying design and use of equipment. This would also reduce development time.

Life support systems utilizing plants to provide breathable air and nutritional sustenance function more naturally and would be less complex in a biosphere with AG. Since plants evolved on Earth to develop gravitropism with roots growing down relative to a gravity vector and shoots sprouting upward, there is no need to develop complex systems to function in microgravity for proper water and nutrient supply as was necessary for NASA’s Passive Nutrient Delivery System aboard the ISS. There would be easier application of hydroponics systems and vertical farming could be leveraged in habitats with AG while harvested fruits and vegetables can be easily rinsed prior to consumption.

With respect to operations, tasks are similar to normal ground based activities so again, less training would be required. Clutter would be reduced and tie downs for tools that tend to float away in microgravity are not necessary. Schedule management would be improved because there would be less time spent on the extra exercise necessary to counteract health problems induced by exposure to microgravity. Activities like showering and sleeping can be challenging in the absence of gravity, so AG would improve the quality of life in regard to these and other routines we take for granted on Earth.

As readers of SSP are aware, the well documented deleterious effects of exposure to microgravity would be mitigated for crews in an AG environment. Such exposure could preserve crew health by preventing losses in bone and muscle mass, cardiovascular deconditioning, weakening of the immune system, vision changes, cognitive degradation and many other spaceflight induced pathologies as documented in the paper’s references. For tourists or visiting researchers, disorientation and days-long adjustment to microgravity due to Space Adaption Syndrome would be prevented.

Safety would be enhanced as well. For instance, combustion processes and flames behave very differently in microgravity making fire suppression less well understood when compared to normal gravity, necessitating development of new safety procedures. Free floating liquids and tools tend to move around unrestricted causing hazards that could potentially short out electrical equipment. Microorganisms and mold could present a health hazard as humidity control is problematic without a gravity vector. Surgery and medical procedures have not been developed for weightless conditions, requiring specially designed equipment and processes. Liquids drawn from vials containing drugs behave differently in microgravity because of surface tension effects. As mentioned above, training for all activities and equipment designed for use in Earth-normal gravity can be performed ahead of time on the ground. Testing of flight hardware would be simplified as it would not need to be redesigned for use in microgravity. Finally, decades of health studies on astronauts in space under microgravity conditions have found that pathological microorganisms are less responsive to antibiotics while at the same time, become more virulent. AG could make these microbes respond as expected on Earth.

The space station proposed in this paper would include an inner ring housing hypogravity facilities where AG equivalent to levels of the Moon and Mars could be provided for investigators to study and tourists to experience. Mammalian reproduction could be studied in ethical clinical experiments to determine if conception, gestation, birth and maturation to adulthood is possible in lower gravity over multiple generations, starting with rodents and progressing to higher primates. The central module would provide a microgravity science center for zero-g basic research or manufacturing where scientists could perform experiments then return to the outer ring’s healthy 1g conditions.

The author’s budgetary analysis found that the cost of such a facility would be about 5% higher than a microgravity habitat due to increased mass for propulsion and supplementary structures, but the benefits outlined above would be an acceptable trade off enabling a better quality of life for tourists and permanent inhabitants. This concept could be the first step in validating health studies and living conditions in artificial gravity informing the design of larger free space settlements.

Progress on mammalian reproduction in microgravity

AI generated image of an expectant mother with her developing fetus in Earth orbit after mammalian reproduction has been validated via higher animal models through all stages of pregnancy for a safe level of gravity. An appropriate level of radiation shielding would also be required and is not shown in this illustration. Credits:DALL∙E 3

We are one step closer to determining the gravity prescription for human reproduction in space. Okay, so we still don’t have the green light for having children at destinations in space with less than normal Earth gravity or higher radiation environments….yet. But a team of Japanese scientists report positive results after running an experiment aboard the International Space Station in 2019 that examined mouse embryos cultured in both microgravity and artificial gravity in space, then compared them to controls on Earth after a few days of development. The researchers published their results in a paper in iScience.

The researchers developed equipment and a protocol for freezing two-cell embryos after fertilization on the ground and launching them to the ISS where they were thawed then split into two groups, one allocated to growth in microgravity, the other treated with spin gravity to artificially simulate 1g. A control group remained on Earth. The procedure was designed to be executed by untrained astronauts. Cultured growth continued for 4 days after which the samples were preserved and refridgerated until they could be returned to Earth for analysis.

The samples were also monitored for radiation with a dosimeter and as expected aboard the ISS, were exposed to radiation levels higher then developing fetuses experience on the ground but far lower than those known to exist in deep space outside the Earth’s atmosphere and protective magnetic field. Still, this can be a “worst case” data point for radiation exposure to developing embryos as it is unlikely that pregnancy would be ethically sanctioned at higher levels.

Upon thawing by astronauts, the embryos were cultured through initial mitosis to eventual cell differentiation and blastocyst formation. A blastocyst is the multicellular structure of early embryonic development consisting of an an outer layer of cells called the trophectoderm surrounding a fluid-filled cavity in which an inner cell mass (ICM) called the embryoblast eventually develops into the embryo.

The study was concerned with how gravity may influence cell differentiation, the placement of the ICM within the blastocyst and if radiation effects gene expression in the these cells which will later develop into the fetus. Gene expression within the trophectoderm is also critical for proper development of the placenta.

The results were very promising as the data showed that there were no significant effects on early cell differentiation during embryo development and that proper gene expression manifested in microgravity when compared to 1g artificial and normal Earth gravity.

A human blastocyst with the inner cell mass at upper right. Credits: Wikipedia

A highlight of the paper implied that the results indicate that “Mammals can thrive in space.” It is too early to make such a bold statement with only this one study. It should be noted that this experiment only focuses on one early stage of embryo development. Conception in microgravity is not addressed and as pointed out by Alex Layendecker of the Astrosexological Research Institute, may have a whole other set of problems that raise ethical concerns as may the effects of lower gravity on later stages of gestation, in actual live birth and in early child development.

No matter how positive these recent results appear to be for early embryo development, as was determined by a landmark experiment on pregnant mice during the Shuttle era, we already have a data point on mammalian fetal development in later stages of gestation in microgravity: serious brain developmental issues were discovered in mice offspring born after exposure to these conditions. So mammalian reproduction in microgravity may start out relatively normally (assuming conception is successful) but appears to have problems in later stages, at least according to the limited data we have so far. On the bright side, the recent study found that 1g artificial gravity had no significant effects on embryo development.

Clearly more data is needed to determine which level of gravity will be sufficient for all stages of mammalian reproduction in space. Fortunately, SpaceBorn United is working on this very problem. They have plans for research into all stages of human reproduction in space to enable independent human settlements off Earth. SpaceBorn CEO Egbert Edelbroek in a recent appearance on The Space Show described upcoming missions later this decade that will study mammalian conception and embryo development using the company’s assisted reproductive technology in space (ARTIS). They have developed a space-embryo-incubator that will contain male and female mouse gametes, which upon launch into orbit, will initiate conception to create embryos for development in variable gravity levels. After 5-6 days the embryos would be cryogenically frozen for return to Earth where they would be inspected and if acceptable, placed in a natural womb for the rest of pregnancy and subsequent birth. If successful with mice the the company plans experiments with human stem cell embryos and eventually human gametes.

The gravity prescription for human reproduction in less than normal Earth gravity is still not known. But at least researchers are starting to gather data on this critical factor for long term biologically sustainable space settlement.

Crops in space: providing sustenance and life support for settlers

Roadmap for research and infrastructure development for growing crops in space for human sustenance and life support, from the ISS to Mars. Credits: Grace L. Douglas, Raymond M. Wheeler and Ralph F. Fritsche

Space settlement advocates know that we will have to take our biosphere with us to space to produce food, provide breathable air and recycle wastes. Completely closing the system, i.e. recycling everything is a huge technological challenge, especially on a small scale like what is planned for settlements in free space or on the surfaces of the Moon or Mars. Fortunately, there are plenty of raw materials in the solar system for in situ resource utilization so we can live off the land, so to speak, until our bioregenerative life support system efficiencies improve.

Early research into crop production in space has been performed on the ISS. But the road ahead for space agriculture in the context of life support systems needs careful planning to pave the way toward biologically self-sustaining space settlements. A team of scientists at NASA is working on a roadmap toward sustainability with a step-by-step approach to bioregenerative life support systems (BLSS) that will provide food and oxygen for astronauts during the space agency’s mission plans in the decades ahead. In a paper in the journal Sustainability they identify the current state of the art, resource limitations and where gaps remain in the technology while drawing parallels between ecosystems in space and on Earth, with benefits for both.

Simulation and modeling of BLSS concepts is important to predict their behavior and help inform actual hardware designs. A team at the University of Arizona performed a study recently analyzing the inputs and outputs of such a system to improve efficiencies and apply it to food production on Earth in areas challenged by resource limitations and food insecurity. Sustainable ecosystems for supporting humans on and off Earth have similar goals: minimizing growing space, water usage, energy needs and waste production while simultaneously maximizing crop yields. The team presented their findings in a paper presented at the 50th International Conference on Environmental Systems held last July. In the study, a model of an ecosystem was created consisting of various combinations of plants, mushrooms, insects, and fish to support a population of 8 people for 183 days with an analysis of total growing area, water requirements, energy consumption and total wastes produced. The study concluded that “In terms of resource consumption, the strategy of growing plants, mushrooms, and insects is the most resource-efficient approach.”

At the same conference, an update was provided on a Scalable, Interactive Model of an Off-World Community (SIMOC). SIMOC was described in a previous post on the Space Analog for the Moon and Mars (SAM) located at Biosphere 2 in Arizona. SIMOC is a platform for education meeting standards for student science curriculum. Pupils or citizen scientists can customize human habitats on Mars by selection of mission duration, crew size, food provisions as well as choosing types of plants, levels of energy production, etc.. Users gain an understanding of the complexity of a BLSS and the tradeoffs between mechanical and biological variables of life support for long duration space missions. There is much to be learned on the limitations and stability of closed biospheres, as discussed last year.

Image of Biosphere 2, a research facility to support the development of computer models that simulate the biological, physical and chemical processes to predict ecosystem stability. Credits: Biosphere 2 / University of Arizona

Across the Pond, our European friends at LIQUIFER Systems Group are working on greenhouses for the Moon and Mars derived from the EDEN ISS simulation facility in Antarctica.

A BLSS based on plant biology could be augmented with dark ecosystems, the food chain based on bacteria that are chemotrophic, i.e. deriving their energy from chemical reactions rather then photosynthesis, which could significantly reduce the inputs of energy and water.

A concept for a lunar farm called Lunar Agriculture, Farming for the Future was published in 2020 by an international team of 27 students participating in the Southern Hemisphere Space Studies Program at the International Space University.

Layout of a potential subsurface lunar farm. Credits: International Space University and University of South Australia

As a treat to cap off this post, a retired software engineer and farmer named Marshall Martin living in Oklahoma provided his perspective on crops in space on The Space Show recently. A frequent caller to the program, this was his first appearance as a guest where, like the NASA team mentioned earlier, he recommends a phased approach to space farming starting with small orbital facilities, testing inputs and outputs as we go, to ensure the economics pay off at each stage of our migration off Earth. He even envisions chickens and goats as sources of protein and milk, although the weight limitations for inclusion of these animals in space-based ecosystems may not be possible for quite some time. Its unlikely that cows will ever make it to space but cultured meat production is a real possibility for the carnivores among us which is being studied by ESA.

Cattle in the cargo bay of the Firefly-class transport spaceship Serenity. Cows probably won’t make it to space because of weight, volume and resource limitations but cultured meat is a real possibility. Image from the television series Firefly. Credits: Josh Whedon/ Mutant Enemy, Inc. in associations with Twentieth Century Fox Television

Finally, for those thinking long term of eventual settlement of the galaxy, there are even some people modeling life support systems for interstellar arks.

Image of the interior of a worldship habitat for interstellar travel. Credits: Michel Lamontagne / Principium, Issue 32, February 2021

Update on the Photonic Laser Thruster and the interplanetary Photonic Railway

Diagram depicting the layout of the Photonic Laser Thruster (PLT). Credits: Young K. Bae, Ph.D.

SSP reported last year on the promise of an exciting new Photonic Laser Thruster (PLT) that could significantly reduce travel times between the planets and enable a Phonic Railway opening up the solar system to rapid exploration and eventual settlement. The inventor of the PTL, Dr. Young K. Bae has just published a paper in the Journal of Propulsion and Power (behind a paywall) that refines the mathematical underpinnings of the PLT physics and illuminates some exciting new results. Dr. Bae shared an advance copy of the paper with SSP and we exchanged emails in an effort to boil down the conclusions and clarify the roadmap for commercialization.

Illustration of a Photonic Railway using PLT infrastructure for in-space propulsion established at (from right to left, not to scale) Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Pluto and beyond. Credits: Young K. Bae.

In the new paper, Dr. Bae refines his rigorous analysis of the physics behind the PLT confirming previous projections and discovering some exciting new findings.

As outlined in the previous SSP post linked above, the PLT utilizes a “recycled” laser beam that is reflected between mirrors located at the power source and on the target spacecraft. Some critical researchers have argued that upon each reflection of the beam off the moving target mirror, there is a Doppler shift causing the photons in the laser light to quickly lose energy which could prevent the PLT from achieving high spacecraft velocities. The new paper conclusively proves such arguments false and confirming the basic physics of the PLT.

There were two unexpected findings revealed by the paper. First, the maximum spacecraft velocity achievable with the PLT is 2000 km/sec which is greater than 10 times the original estimate. Second, the efficiency of converting the laser energy to the spacecraft kinetic energy was found to approach 50% at velocities greater than 100 km/s. This is surprisingly higher than originally thought and is on a par with conventional thrusters – but the PLT does not require propellent. These results show conclusively that once the system is validated in space, the PLT has the potential to be the next generation propulsion system.

I asked Dr. Bae if anything has fundamentally changed recently in photonic technology that will bring the PLT closer to realization. He said that the interplanetary PLT can tolerate high cavity laser energy loss factors in the range of 0.1-0.01 % that will permit the use of emerging high power laser mirrors with metamaterials, which are much more resistant to laser induced damage and are readily scalable in fabricating very large PLT mirrors.

With respect to conventional thrusters, he said the PLT can be potentially competitive even at low velocities on the order of 10 km/s, especially for small payloads. This is because system does not use propellant which is very expensive in space and because the PLT launch frequency can be orders of magnitude higher than that of conventional thrusters. Dr. Bae is currently investigating this aspect of the system in terms of space economics in depth.

The paper acknowledges that one of the most critical challenges in scaling-up the PLT would be manufacturing the large-scale high-reflectance mirrors with diameters of 10–1000m, which will likely require large-scale in-space manufacturing. Fortunately, these technologies are currently being studied through DARPA’s NOM4D program which SSP covered previously and Dr. Bae agreed that they could be leveraged for the Photonic Railway.

Artist’s concept of projects, including large high-reflectance mirrors, which could benefit from DARPA’s (NOM4D) plan for robust manufacturing in space. Credits: DARPA

I asked Dr. Bae about his timeline and TRL for a space based demo of his Sheppard Satellite with PLT-C and PLT-P propellantless in-space propulsion and orbit changing technology. He responded that such a mission could be launched in five years assuming there were no issues with treaties on space-based high power lasers. There is The Treaty on the Prevention of the Placement of Weapons in Outer Space but I pointed out that the U.S. has not signed on to this treaty. Article IV of the Outer Space Treaty states that “…any objects carrying nuclear weapons or any other kinds of weapons of mass destruction…” can not be placed in orbit around the Earth or in outer space. Dr. Bae said “We can argue that the [Outer Space] treaty regulation does not apply to PLT, because its energy is confined within the optical cavity so that it cannot destroy any objects.  Or we can design the PLT such that its transformation into a laser weapon can be prevented.”

He then went on to say: “For space demonstration of PLT spacecraft manipulation including stationkeeping, I think using the International Space Station platform would be one of the best ways … I roughly estimate it would take $6M total for 3 years for the demonstration using the ISS power and cubesats. The Tipping Point [Announcement for Partnership Proposals] would be a good [funding mechanism] …to do this.”

Once the technology of the Photonic Railway matures and is validated in the solar system Dr. Bae envisions its use applied to interstellar missions to explore exoplanets in the next century as described in a 2012 paper in Physics Procedia.

Conceptual illustration of the Photonic Railway applied to a roundtrip interstellar voyage to explore exoplanets around Epsilon Eridani. This application requires four PLTs: two for acceleration and two for deceleration. Credits: Young K. Bae

Be sure to listen live and call in to ask Dr. Bae your questions about the PLT in person when he returns to The Space Show on March 29th.

Moon-Mars dumbbell variable gravity research facility in LEO

Conceptual illustration depicting the deployment sequence of a LEO Moon-Mars dumbbell partial gravity facility serviced by SpaceX’s Starship. Left: Starship payloads being moored by a robot arm. Center: 1.6 m ID inflatable airbeams (yellow) play out from spin access and mate with dumbbell end modules. Rectangular solar arrays deploy by hanging at either end as spin is initiated via thrusters at Mars module. Right: Full deployment with Starship and Dragon docked at spin axis hub. Credits: Joe Carroll via The Space Review

There may be no single human factor more important to understand on the road to long term space settlement than determination of the gravity prescription (GRx) for healthy living in less than Earth normal gravity. What do we mean by the GRx? With over 60 years of human space flight experience we still only have two data points for stays longer than a few days to study the effects of gravity on human physiology: microgravity aboard the ISS and data here on the ground. Based on medical research to date, we know that significant problems arise in human health after months of exposure to microgravity. To name a few, osteoporosis, immune system degradation, diminished muscle mass, vision problems due to changes in interocular pressure and cognitive impairment resulting memory loss and lack concentration. Some of these problems can be mitigated with a few hours of daily exercise. But recovery upon return to normal gravity takes considerable time and we don’t know if some of these problems will become irreversible after longer term stays. We have virtually no data on human health at gravity levels of the Moon and Mars, as shown in this graph by Joe Carrol:

Graph of the correlation between human health vs gravity showing the two data points where we have useful data. Whether the relationship is a linear function or something more complex is an unknown of great importance for space settlement. Credits: Joe Carrol presentation at Starship Congress 2019 and Jon Goff post on Selenium Boondocks Nov 29, 2005

The more important question for permanent space settlements is can humans have babies in lower gravity? If we go by the National Space Societies’ definition, an outpost will never really become a permanent space settlement until it is “biologically self-sustaining”. We evolved over millions of years at the bottom Earth’s gravity well. How will amniotic fluid, changes in cell growth, fetal development and human embryos be affected during gestation under lower gravity conditions on the Moon or Mars? There are already indications that problems will arise during mammalian gestation, at least in microgravity as experienced aboard the ISS.

To answer these questions, Joe Carroll suggests the establishment of a crewed artificial gravity research facility in LEO which he described last month in an article in The Space Review. He proposes a Moon-Mars dumbbell with nodes spinning at different rates to simulate gravity on both the Moon and Mars, which covers most of the planetary bodies in the solar system where settlements would be established if not in free space. The facility could be launched and tended by SpaceX’s Starship once the spacecraft is flight worthy in the next few years in parallel with Elon Musk’s plans to establish an outpost on Mars. Musk may even want to fund this facility to inform his long term plans for communities on Mars. If his goal is for the humanity to become a multiplanetary species, surely will want to know if his settlers can have children.

Carroll’s design connects the Moon and Mars modules with radial structures called “airbeams” which will allow crew to access the variable gravity nodes in a shirtsleeve environment. The inflatable members are composed of polymer fiber fabric which can be easily folded for storage in the Starship payload bay. Crews would be initially launched aboard Dragon until the Starship is human rated.

“Eventually, rotating free-space settlements will get massive enough to use other shapes, but dumbbells plus airbeams seem like the key to useful early ones.”

The paper addresses details on key operating concepts, docking procedures, emergency protocols, and the implications for long term settlement in the solar system.

There may even be a market for orbital tourism to experience lower gravity that could make funding for the facility attractive to space venture capitalists, especially if it is located in an equatorial orbit shielded from ionizing radiation by the Earth’s magnetic fields. As the technology matures, older tourists may even want to retire in orbital communities that offer the advantage of lower gravity as their bodies become frail in their golden years.

Humankind’s expansion out into the solar system depends on where we can survive and thrive in a healthy environment. If ethical clinical studies on lower mammals in a Moon/Mars dumbbell clears the way for a healthy life in lunar gravity then we can expand out to the six largest moons including our own plus Mars. If the data shows we need at least Mars gravity, then the Red Planet or even Mercury could be potential sites for permanent settlement. But if nothing below Earth normal gravity is tolerable, especially for mammalian gestation, it may be necessary to build ever larger rotating O’Neillian free space settlements to expand civilization across the solar system. There are vast resources and virtually unlimited energy if we need to do that. But it will take considerable time and careful planning to establish the vast infrastructure needed to build these settlements. If human physiology is constrained by Earth’s gravity then space settlers will want to know this information soon so that the planning process can be integrated into space development activities about to unfold on the Moon and beyond. If Musk finds out that Mars inhabitants cannot have children and wants to establish permanent communities beyond Earth, would he change course and switch to O’Neillian free space settlements?

“If we do need sustained gravity at levels higher than that of Mars, it seems easier to develop sustainable rotating settlements than to terraform any near-1g planet.”

Listen to Joe Carroll answer my questions about his Moon/Mars dumbbell facility from earlier this month on this archived episode of The Space Show.

Redwire manufactures the first 3D printed ceramic in space

Image of Ceramics Manufacturing Module (CMM), a commercial manufacturing facility that produces ceramic parts in microgravity for terrestrial use. Credits: Redwire/Made in Space

Made in Space, a recent acquisition of Redwire, has just for the first time successfully manufactured a ceramic part in their Ceramics Manufacturing Module on the ISS using additive manufacturing. The demonstration could stimulate demand in low Earth orbit from terrestrial markets which will be a key driver for space industrialization. Redwire claims that the parts, which included a turbine blisk (bladed disk) and other test pieces, demonstrate that the CMM can produce ceramic parts that exceed the quality of turbine components made on Earth.

According to Redwire’s press release: “CMM aims to demonstrate that ceramic manufacturing in microgravity could enable temperature-resistant, reinforced ceramic parts with better performance, including higher strength and lower residual stress. For high-performance applications such as turbines, nuclear plants, or internal combustion engines, even small strength improvements can yield years-to-decades of superior service life.”

Image of CCM 3D printed part fabricated in LEO. Credits: Redwire

ESA’s Biorock experiment demonstrates microbe extraction of rare Earth elements from simulated regolith aboard ISS

ESA astronaut Luca Parmitano loads microbes into the Kubik centrifuge facility on the International Space Station. Credits: ESA

A research team at the University of Edinburgh in the UK has just published an analysis of data from an experiment on the International Space Station that could lead to “biomining” on Mars or an asteroid. Published in Nature Communications on November 10, Cockell, C.S., Santomartino, R., Finster, K. et al.* present experimental results demonstrating microbiological leaching of rare Earth elements from basalt rock, an analogue for much of the regolith material on the Moon and Mars. Called BioRock, the ESA sponsored experiment examined three species of microorganisms under variable gravity conditions in the Kubik centrifuge facility located in Europe’s Columbus module on the ISS.

This technology is a significant breakthrough for in situ resource utilization. By “living off the land” on the Moon, Mars or an asteroid, space settlers could have an available source of valuable materials used in electronic devices and many other high-technology applications. These rare Earth elements and the traditional heavy mining equipment needed to extract them would not have to be launched from Earth, significantly reducing transportation and processing costs. Positive results were found under Earth gravity, Mars gravity and microgravity conditions. The authors conclude that the experiment “…shows the efficacy of microbe–mineral interactions for advancing the establishment of a self-sustaining permanent human presence beyond the Earth and the technical means to do that.”

* BioRock study Authors: Charles S. CockellRosa SantomartinoKai FinsterAnnemiek C. WaajenLorna J. EadesRalf MoellerPetra RettbergFelix M. FuchsRob Van HoudtNatalie LeysIlse ConinxJason HattonLuca ParmitanoJutta KrauseAndrea KoehlerNicol CaplinLobke ZuijderduijnAlessandro MarianiStefano S. PellariFabrizio CarubiaGiacomo LucianiMichele BalsamoValfredo ZolesiNatasha NicholsonClaire-Marie LoudonJeannine Doswald-WinklerMagdalena HerováBernd RattenbacherJennifer WadsworthR. Craig Everroad & René Demets 

Thales Alenia selected as key supplier for Axiom commercial space station

Illustration of Axiom Segment attached at Node 2 Forward port of the ISS. Credit: Axiom Space

Just announced in a press release January 24, the joint venture between Thales and Leonardo will design and develop Axiom’s Micrometeoroid & Debris Protection System and Habitation Module. Axiom was granted access by NASA in January to attach its space station modules to the International Space Station’s Node 2 Forward port in the latter half of 2024. The Axiom Segment may eventually replace the ISS upon decommissioning later this decade. We’re one step closer to the first space settlement in low Earth orbit.